The Descent into Madness: An Analysis of the Phenomenon of Female Rage and Liberation in The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman

By: E.S.

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In the past, they called it "madness"; now, society dismisses it as mere dramatics. Yet, the rhetoric remains unchanged; simply expressed in different languages and tones. In the short story The Yellow Wallpaper, the feminist writer Charlotte Perkins Gilman eloquently critiques the rigid gender roles of the late 19th century. The narrative follows an unnamed protagonist, a woman married to John, with whom she has a daughter. Confined to a room she despises, she becomes fixated on its yellow wallpaper while secretly writing in defiance of her husband's wishes. Her controlling husband prohibits her from engaging in any form of work, exercise, or creative expression, enforcing the widely prescribed "rest cure," a treatment developed by Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell. Through characterization and symbolism, Gilman conveys realist ideologies, demonstrating how suppressed feminine rage can evolve into a desperate pursuit of liberation in an era when women's freedom was a highly controversial feat.

At the time Charlotte Perkins Gilman wrote The Yellow Wallpaper, the United States was dealing with widespread gender inequality, as women faced systemic oppression in both the domestic and political affairs, which ultimately fueled the early waves of the women’s rights movement. After Gilman had authored her short story she had released a small article in a magazine in 1913 titled, “‘Why I wrote The Yellow Wallpaper? ’ which essentialty covers the reasons as to why she ended up writing her short story. Gilman was heavily inspired by her own experiences, as she was diagnosed with a nervous condition, called melancholia and because of this she was referred to a so called “specialist” that could help her in times where she was struggling. He instructed her to stay confined and not touch even a pen or a brush for as long as she lived” (Gilman,  265). As Gilman carried out with her treatment she vividly described its effects: “I went home and obeyed those directions for some three months, and came so near to the borderline of utter mental ruin that I could see over.” The so-called advice that the specialist gave Gilman nearly drove her to the brink, more than she already was. The only way that she could overcome this dangerous treatment was for her benefit, to completely cast aside what the doctor recommended and to go back to work. This is where she then describes how much it benefited her, “Went to work again — work, the normal life of every human being; work, in which is joy and growth and service, without which one is a pauper and a parasite; ultimately recovering some measure of power” (Gilman, 265). Here, she gained back some of her humanity, her own sense of personalism, her own rights where she felt she had control over herself again, and independence. In her quote she asserts that every human being should have the right to work, including women, in a time where women’s rights were deemed as controversial. Gilman is covering realist ideologies due to rejecting traditional forms of treatment and instead doing something unconventional, unheard of in which coincides with the women’s suffrage movement. That ultimately begs to reform women’s voting rights, and change America’s historical documents from simply just including the male population, to include all persons. Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story reflects this growing rage, as the protagonist finds an unconventional path to liberation through her obsession with the yellow wallpaper. Much like suffragists who defied societal norms, the narrator’s psychological breakdown can be seen as a form of radical resistance against the constraints placed upon her. By contextualizing The Yellow Wallpaper within the broader struggles of suffragists and oppressed women, it becomes clear that Gilman was not just critiquing medical malpractice but illustrating the dangerous consequences of repressing female autonomy and the extreme lengths to which women would go in their pursuit of freedom.

Moreover, Gilman uses characterization to show the narrator’s descent into madness and her husband John’s oppressive control, portraying a realistic portrayal of how the rest cure suppresses feminine autonomy which fuels a rage-driven pursuit of liberation. The first characterization tactic the author uses to cast upon her character can be argued from the articles, it states, “In her own explanation of the story, she implies that the narrator is representative of women who have suffered from the "rest cure," but the fact that the doctor is also the narrator's husband suggests that the narrator represents married women in general” (Shumaker, 1). Here, the quote defends the narrative that the character speaks for a wider audience, of women during the 19th century that were suffering from this cure and in addition to a representation of how married women are affected from the gender roles. Furthermore, the narrator displays characteristics that challenge the typical expectations of women in the 19th century, who were expected to remain obedient and passive. Rather than just accepting her typical role, she subtly resists the control imposed upon her. In the opening of her diary entries, she states, “Personally, I disagree with their ideas. Personally, I believe that congenial work, with excitement and change, would do me good. But what is one to do? I did write for a while in spite of them; but it does exhaust me a good deal—having to be so sly about it or else meet with heavy opposition” (Gilman, 481). The very act of keeping a journal is an act of defiance, a secret rebellion against the restrictions placed upon her. The phrase “having to be so sly about it” shows the oppressive environment in which she lives, where even the act of writing and expressing herself was forbidden. Her frustration becomes clear, and while she initially complies with her husband's orders, the diary serves as a space where her suppressed emotions begin to take shape. The repetition of “personally” highlights her struggle to assert her own identity and opinions in a world that constantly dismisses them. This early resistance foreshadows the growing intensity of her way to resist, which, as the story progresses, manifests into a full-fledged rebellion against the societal forces that seek to control her mind and body. There is an instance where John speaks to the narrator about her health in a dismissive manner, insisting that she is improving to the point where he says, “There is nothing so dangerous, so fascinating to a temperament like yours. It is a false and foolish fancy. Can you not trust me as a physician when I tell you so?” (Gilman, 487).  Immediately after John’s statement, the narrator is silenced and refrains from arguing with him, fearing further confrontation. This moment characterizes John as a condescending and controlling husband who weaponizes his role as both a physician and a spouse to invalidate the narrator’s concerns. By attacking her so-called ‘temperament’, John not only dismisses her feelings but also reinforces the belief that she is irrational and incapable of making decisions for herself which, in turn, only exacerbates the situation.

Meanwhile, the narrator’s characterization is equally significant, her immediate compliance, despite her internal frustration, reflects the deep-rooted societal conditioning that forces women into silence. However, beneath her obedience, her suppressed anger and resentment continue to build. This suppression aligns with the recurring theme of the narrator’s rage being stifled, only waiting to surface. Through this indirect characterization, the reader can infer that the narrator harbors thoughts and opinions she chooses not to express, as she knows John will only dismiss them. This reflects realist ideologies, as the narrator subtly resists the traditional gender roles portrayed in literature at the time. The restrained feminine rage she experiences further emphasizes her quiet defiance, challenging the expectations imposed upon women in her society in the 19th century. 

Additionally, Gilman repeatedly uses dramatic irony throughout The Yellow Wallpaper to highlight the narrator’s gradual realization of her oppression and the emotional turmoil that fuels her eventual liberation. As the narrator descends into what John deems "madness," the audience recognizes that her so-called illness is actually a direct response to the restrictive environment imposed upon her. However, the narrator remains unaware of the full extent of her own confinement, which creates a powerful sense of irony. She attempts to justify John’s treatment, convincing herself that he acts out of love and medical expertise: “It is hard to talk to John about my case because he is so wise, and because he loves me so” (Gilman, 837). The reader, however, understands that John’s treatment is not an act of love but rather a means of control, making the narrator’s blind faith in him tragically ironic. Shumaker expands on this in "Too Terribly Good to Be Printed": Charlotte Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper," explaining, “If John were not so wise—so sure of his own empirical knowledge and his expertise as a doctor—and so loving—so determined to make her better in the only way he knows—then he might be able to set aside his fear of her imagination and listen to her.” The irony here lies in the fact that John's supposed wisdom and love prevent him from truly understanding his wife’s suffering, ultimately worsening her condition rather than curing it. Furthermore, dramatic irony is used to emphasize the narrator’s conflicting emotions about her confinement. She acknowledges her unease about the house but immediately dismisses it, mirroring the way she suppresses her own instincts: “There is something strange about the house—I can feel it. I even said so to John one moonlight evening, but he said what I felt was a draught, and shut the window” (Gilman, 832). While the narrator rationalizes  her concerns, the reader can assume that her intuition is on point that the house is not just physically confining but symbolically represents the broader societal constraints placed upon women.

Her frustration is evident, yet she conditions herself to believe that her emotions are unreasonable: "I get unreasonably angry with John sometimes. I'm sure I never used to be so sensitive. I think it is due to this nervous condition” (Gilman, 832). The dramatic irony in these moments reinforces the idea that the narrator has been conditioned to doubt herself, demonstrating how John’s dismissal of her feelings strengthens her internalized oppression. However, as her frustration builds, this irony foreshadows her eventual rebellion, as she moves from self-doubt to self-awareness, ultimately breaking free from both the wallpaper and the patriarchal constraints that have imprisoned her.

As the story reaches its climax, Gilman uses symbolism to mirror the narrator’s deteriorating mental state and her desperate pursuit of liberation. The yellow wallpaper itself becomes the central symbol, evolving in meaning as the narrator’s psychological state worsens. At first, the narrator expresses her disgust toward the wallpaper’s pattern, saying, “The outside pattern is a florid arabesque, reminding one of fungus” (Gilman, 838).  Her distaste centered around the wallpaper  represents her initial resistance to the oppressive environment she has been forced into. The “florid arabesque” and “fungus” evoke images of decay, reflecting how her confinement in the room, under her husband’s authority, is slowly decaying her sanity. However, as her mind unravels, the wallpaper’s pattern begins to shape into a deeper meaning, shifting from an unpleasant design to a haunting reflection of her own isolation. Further symbolism is displayed as the story progresses, the narrator begins to see a “Strange sort of formless provoking sort of figure, that seems to skulk about behind that silly and conspicuous front design... it is like a woman stooping down and creeping about behind the pattern”(Gilman, 484).  Here, the creeping woman in the wallpaper symbolizes the narrator’s own imprisonment both mentally and physically. The “stooping” and “creeping” imagery suggests that there is secrecy, reflecting the way women of the time were forced into submissive roles and denied to choose what they want for themselves. The wallpaper, which initially appeared as a simple household feature, transforms into a direct metaphor for the suffocating structures of patriarchy that keep women confined, both physically and mentally. The narrator’s growing obsession with the wallpaper ultimately leads her to a breaking point, this is identified in a journal called, where she identifies entirely with the trapped woman. She tears at the wallpaper in a frenzy, symbolizing her desperate attempt to free herself: “The narrator destroys the wallpaper and expresses her desperate rage, finally integrating herself and the woman trapped in the paper into a single triumphant ‘I’” (Gilman's Gothic Allegory, 1). This act of destruction is not simply an expression of madness; rather, it serves as a symbolic rebellion against the oppression that has stifled her voice and identity. By merging herself with the woman behind the wallpaper, she fully embraces her defiance, no longer willing to conform to the expectations imposed upon her. However, even in this moment of perceived liberation, the narrator remains physically trapped. While she may have mentally freed herself from John’s control, she is still confined within the house and within the patriarchal structures that define her reality. One interpretation further supports this idea, is from an article “Dead Paper": A Study of the Trauma of Therapeutic Fallacy in Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper” by Bandyopadhyay, Aditi states, “The image of ‘many heads’ reflects the imprisoned state of women in patriarchy. The trapped woman who creeps is the narrator’s double who struggles to earn freedom from the meaningless existence of being a ‘doll’ residing in the ‘doll’s house” (95-96).This suggests that while the narrator has broken free from societal expectations in her mind, she remains a victim of the system itself, much like countless other women of her time. Ultimately, the wallpaper’s transformation throughout the story serves as a powerful symbol of the narrator’s psychological unraveling and her resistance against oppression. What begins as an object of hatred becomes a source of revelation, leading to an act of rebellion.

In the end, The Yellow Wallpaper is a brilliantly written work that not only explores the psychological degradation of its narrator but also serving as a broader critique of the oppressive and medical treatment of  women in the late 19th century. By utilizing characterization, irony, and symbolism, Gilman exposes the damaging effects of patriarchal control and the so-called "hysteria" treatments imposed on women. The story ultimately illustrates how the suppression of feminine autonomy leads to an inevitable expression of rage, a rage that, rather than signifying just madness, becomes a desperate yet powerful pursuit of freedom. Gilman conveys realist ideologies by portraying women as independent thinkers, challenging the rigid expectations of obedience and submission. Through the narrator’s descent and symbolic escape, Gilman delivers a haunting Gothic warning about the consequences of silencing women, ensuring that her story remains relevant for decades to come.

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Works Cited 

Bandyopadhyay, Aditi. “‘Dead Paper’: A Study of the Trauma of Therapeutic Fallacy in Gilman’s ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’” New Literaria, vol. 5, no. 2, 2024, pp. 90–98. ProQuest, https://login.proxy189.nclive.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/dead-paper-study-trauma-therapeutic-fallacy/docview/3094505889/se-2. doi:10.48189/nl.2024.v05i2.011.

“Gilman’s Gothic Allegory: Rage and Redemption in ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’” Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Chelsea House, 2015. Bloom’s Literature, online.infobase.com/Auth/Index?aid=114111&itemid=WE54&articleId=368195.

Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. “The Yellow Wallpaper.” The Norton Anthology of American Literature: 1865–1914, edited by Robert S. Levine, 9th ed., vol. C, W.W. Norton, 2017, pp. 767–779.

Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. “Why I Wrote ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’?” Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, vol. 17, no. 4, 2011, p. 265.

Shumaker, Conrad. “‘Too Terribly Good to Be Printed’: Charlotte Gilman’s ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’” Bloom’s Literary Themes: Dark Humor, edited by Chelsea House, 2020. Bloom’s Literature, online.infobase.com/Auth/Index?aid=114111&itemid=WE54&articleId=2546.